Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering, 3rd edition
by J. Kenneth Shultis and Richard E. Faw
CRC Press, Boaca Raton, 2017. ISBN 978-1-4987-6929-7
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 1 Fundamental Concepts
1.1 Modern Units
1.1.1 Special Nuclear Units
1.1.2 Physical Constants
1.2 The Atom
1.2.1 The Fundamental Constituents of Ordinary Matter
1.2.2 Dark Matter and Energy
1.2.3 Atomic and Nuclear Nomenclature
1.2.4 Relative Atomic Masses
1.2.5 Avogadro's Number
1.2.6 Mass of an Atom
1.2.7 Atomic and Isotope Number Density
1.2.8 Size of an Atom
1.2.9 Atomic and Isotopic Abundances
1.2.10 Nuclear Dimensions
1.3 Chart of the Nuclides
1.3.1 Other Sources of Atomic/Nuclear Information
Chapter 12 Modern Physics Concepts
2.1 The Special Theory of Relativity
2.1.1 Principle of Relativity
2.1.2 Results of the Special Theory of Relativity
2.2 Radiation as Waves and Particles
2.2.1 The Photoelectric Effect
2.2.2 Compton Scattering
2.2.3 Electromagnetic Radiation: Wave-Particle Duality
2.2.4 Electron Scattering
2.2.5 Wave-Particle Duality
2.3 Quantum Mechanics
2.3.1 Schr\"odinger's Wave Equation
2.3.2 The Wave Function
2.3.3 The Uncertainty Principle
2.3.4 Success of Quantum Mechanics
2.4 Addendum 1: Derivation of Some Special Relativity Results
2.4.1 Time Dilation
2.4.2 Length Contraction
2.4.3 Mass Increase
2.5 Addendum 2: Solutions to Schr\"odinger's Wave Equation
2.5.1 The Particle in a Box
2.5.2 The Hydrogen Atom
2.5.3 Energy Levels for Multielectron Atoms
Chapter 3 Atomic/Nuclear Models
3.1 Development of the Modern Atom Model
3.1.1 Discovery of Radioactivity
3.1.2 Thomson's Atomic Model: The Plum Pudding Model
3.1.3 The Rutherford Atomic Model
3.1.4 The Bohr Atomic Model
3.1.5 Extension of the Bohr Theory: Elliptic Orbits
3.1.6 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
3.2 Models of the Nucleus
3.2.1 Fundamental Properties of the Nucleus
3.2.2 The Proton-Electron Model
3.2.3 The Proton-Neutron Model
3.2.4 Stability of Nuclei
3.2.5 The Liquid Drop Model of the Nucleus
3.2.6 Mass Parabolas
3.2.7 The Nuclear Shell Model
3.2.8 Other Nuclear Models
Chapter 4 Nuclear Energetics
4.1 Binding Energy
4.1.1 Nuclear and Atomic Masses
4.1.2 Binding Energy of the Nucleus
4.1.3 Average Nuclear Binding Energies
4.2 Binding Energies of Isotopes
4.3 Nucleon Separation Energy
4.4 Nuclear Reactions
4.5 Examples of Binary Nuclear Reactions
4.5.1 Multiple Reaction Outcomes
4.6 Q-Value for a Reaction
4.6.1 Binary Reactions
4.6.2 Radioactive Decay Reactions
4.7 Conservation of Charge and the Calculation of Q-Values
4.7.1 Special Case for Changes in the Proton Number
4.8 Q-Value for Reactions Producing Excited Nulcei
Chapter 5 Radioactivity
5.1 Overview
5.2 Types of Radioactive Decay
5.3 Radioactive Decay Diagrams
5.4 Energetics of Radioactive Decay
5.4.1 Gamma Decay
5.4.2 Alpha-Particle Decay
5.4.3 Beta-Particle Decay
5.4.4 Positron Decay
5.4.5 Electron Capture
5.4.6 Neutron Decay
5.4.7 Proton Decay
5.4.8 Internal Conversion
5.5 Characteristics of Radioactive Decay
5.5.1 The Decay Constant
5.5.2 Exponential Decay
5.5.3 The Half-Life
5.5.4 Decay Probability for a Finite Time Interval
5.5.5 Mean Lifetime
5.5.6 Activity
5.5.7 Half-Life Measurement
5.5.8 Decay by Competing Processes
5.6 Decay Dynamics
5.6.1 Decay with Production
5.6.2 Three Component Decay Chains
5.6.3 General Decay Chain
5.7 Naturally Occurring Radionuclides
5.7.1 Cosmogenic Radionuclides
5.7.2 Singly Occurring Primordial Radionuclides
5.7.3 Decay Series of Primordial Origin
5.7.4 Secular Equilibrium
5.8 Radiodating
5.8.1 Measuring the Decay of a Parent
5.8.2 Measuring the Buildup of a Stable Daughter
5.9 Radioactive Decay Data
Chapter 6 Binary Nuclear Reactions
6.1 Types of Binary Reactions
6.1.1 The Compound Nucleus
6.2 Kinematics of Binary Two-Product Nuclear Reactions
6.2.1 Energy/Mass Conservation
6.2.2 Conservation of Energy and Linear Momentum
6.3 Reaction Threshold Energy
6.3.1 Kinematic Threshold
6.3.2 Coulomb Barrier Threshold
6.3.3 Overall Threshold Energy
6.4 Applications of Binary Kinematics
6.4.1 A Neutron Detection Reaction
6.4.2 A Neutron Production Reaction
6.4.3 Heavy Particle Scattering from an Electron
6.5 Reactions Involving Neutrons
6.5.1 Neutron Scattering
6.5.2 Neutron Capture Reactions
6.5.3 Fission Reactions
6.6 Characteristics of the Fission Reaction
6.6.1 Fission Products
6.6.2 Neutron Emission in Fission
6.6.3 Energy Released in Fission
6.7 Fusion Reactions
6.7.1 Thermonuclear Fusion
6.7.2 Energy Production in Stars
6.7.3 Nucleogenesis
Chapter 7 Radiation Interactions with Matter
7.1 Attenuation of Neutral Particle Beams
7.1.1 The Linear Interaction Coefficient
7.1.2 Attenuation of Uncollided Radiation
7.1.3 Average Travel Distance Before an Interaction
7.1.4 Half-Thickness
7.1.5 Scattered Radiation
7.1.6 Microscopic Cross Sections
7.2 Calculation of Radiation Interaction Rates
7.2.1 Flux Density
7.2.2 Reaction-Rate Density
7.2.3 Generalization to Energy- and Time-Dependent Situations
7.2.4 Radiation Fluence
7.2.5 Uncollided Flux Density from an Isotropic Point Source
7.3 Photon Interactions
7.3.1 Photoelectric Effect
7.3.2 Compton Scattering
7.3.3 Pair Production
7.3.4 Photon Attenuation Coefficients
7.4 Neutron Interactions
7.4.1 Classification of Types of Interactions
7.4.2 Fission Cross Sections
7.5 Attenuation of Charged Particles
7.5.1 Interaction Mechanisms
7.5.2 Particle Range
7.5.3 Stopping Power
7.5.4 Estimating Charged-Particle Ranges
Chapter 8 Detection and Measurement of Radiation
8.1 Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
8.1.1 General Operation
8.1.1 Ion Chambers
8.1.2 Proportional Counters
8.1.3 Geiger-Muller Counters
8.2 Scintillation Detectors
8.2.1 Inorganic Scintillators
8.2.2 Organic Scintillators
8.2.3 Light Collection
8.3 Semiconductor Detectors
8.3.1 Ge Detectors
8.3.2 Si Detectros
8.3.3 Compound Semiconductor Detectors
8.4 Personal Dosimeters
8.4.1 Photographic Film
8.4.2 Pocket Ion Chambers
8.4.3 TLDs and OSLs
8.5 Other Interesting Detectors
8.5.1 Cloud Chambers, Bubble Chambers, and Superheateed Drop Detectors
8.5.2 Cryogenic Detectors
8.5.3 AMANDA and IceCube
8.6 Measurement Theory
8.5.1 Types of Measurement Uncertainties
8.5.2 Uncertainty Assignment Based Upon Counting Statistics
8.5.3 Dead Time
8.7 Detection Equipment
8.7.1 Power Supply
8.7.2 Preamplifier
8.7.3 Amplifier
8.7.4 Oscilloscope
8.7.5 Discriminator/Single Channel Analyzer
8.7.6 Counter/Timer
8.7.7 Pulser
8.7.8 Other NIM Components
Chapter 9 Radiation Doses and Hazard Assessment
9.1 Historical Roots
9.2 Dosimetric Quantities
9.2.1 Energy Imparted to the Medium
9.2.2 Absorbed Dose
9.2.3 Kerma
9.2.4 Calculating Kerma and Absorbed Doses
9.2.5 Exposure
9.2.6 Relative Biological Effectiveness
9.2.7 Dose Equivalent
9.2.8 Quality Factor
9.2.9 Effective Dose Equivalent
9.2.10 Effective Dose
9.3 Doses from Ingested Radionuclides
9.4 Natural Exposures for Humans
9.5 Health Effects from Large Acute Doses
9.5.1 Effects on Individual Cells
9.5.2 Deterministic Effects in Organs and Tissues
9.5.3 Potentially Lethal Exposure to Low-LET Radiation
9.6 Hereditary Effects
9.6.1 Classification of Genetic Effects
9.6.2 Summary of Risk Estimates
9.7 Cancer Risks from Radiation Exposures
9.7.1 Estimating Radiogenic Cancer Risks
9.7.2 Dose-Response Models for Cancer
9.7.3 Average Cancer Risks for Exposed Populations
9.7.4 Probability of Causation Calculations
9.8 Radon and Lung Cancer Risks
9.8.1 Radon Activity Concentrations
9.8.2 Lung Cancer Risks
9.9 Radiation Protection Standards
9.9.1 Risk-Related Dose Limits
9.9.2 The 1987 NCRP Exposure Limits
9.19 Radiation Hormesis
9.10.1 A Hormetic Dose-Effect Model
9.10.2 Evidence for Hormesis
9.10.3 Is the LNT Model Doomed?
Chapter 10 Principles of Nuclear Reactors
10.1 Neutron Moderation
10.2 Thermal Neutrons
10.3 Thermal-Neutron Properties of Fuels
10.4 The Neutron Life Cycle in a Thermal Reactor
10.4.1 Quantification of the Neutron Cycle
10.4.2 Effective Multiplication Factor
10.5 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Cores
10.6 Reflectors
10.7 Reactor Kinetics
10.7.1 A Simple Reactor Kinetics Model
10.7.2 Delayed Neutrons
10.7.3 Reactivity and Delta-k
10.7.4 Revised Simplified Reactor Kinetics Models
10.7.5 Power Transients Following a Reactivity Insertion
10.8 Reactivity Feedback
10.8.1 Feedback Caused by Isotopic Changes
10.8.2 Feedback Caused by Temperature Changes
10.9 Fission Product Poisons
10.9.1 Xenon Poisoning
10.9.2 Samarium Poisoning
10.10 Addendum 1: The Diffusion Equation
10.10.1 An Example Fixed-Source Problem
10.10.2 An Example Criticality Problem
10.10.3 More Detailed Neutron-Field Descriptions
10.11 \phantom A Addendum 2: Kinetic Model with Delayed Neutrons
10.12 \phantom A Addendum 3: Solution for a Step Reactivity Insertion
Chapter 11 Nuclear Power
11.1 Nuclear Electric Power
11.1.1 Electricity from Thermal Energy
11.1.2 Conversion Efficiency
11.1.3 Some Typical Power Reactors
11.1.4 Coolant Limitations
11.1.5 Industrial Infrastructure
11.1.6 Evolution of Nuclear Power Reactors
11.2 Generation II Pressurized Water Reactors
11.2.1 The Steam Cycle of a PWR
11.2.2 Major Components of a PWR
11.3 Generation II Boiling Water Reactors
11.3.1 The Steam Cycle of a BWR
11.3.2 Major Components of a BWR
11.4 Generation III Nuclear Reactor Designs
11.4.1 The ABWR and ESBWR Designs
11.4.2 The System 80+ Design
11.4.3 AP600 and AP1000 Designs
11.4.4 Other Evolutionary LWR Designs
11.4.5 Heavy Water Reactors
11.4.6 Gas-Cooled Reactors
11.4.7 Liquid-Metal Fast-Breeded Reactors
11.5 Generation IV Nuclear Reactor Designs
11.5.1 Supercritical Water-Cooled Reactors
11.5.2 Lead-Cooled Fast Reactors
11.5.3 Molten-Salt Reactors
11.5.4 Gas-Cooled Fast Reactors
11.5.5 Very High-Temperature Fast Reactors
11.5.6 Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactors
11.5.7 The Gen IV International Forum
11.6 Other Advanced Reactor Concepts
11.7 The Nuclear Fuel Cycle
11.7.1 Uranium Requirements and Availability
11.7.2 Enrichment Techniques
11.7.3 Radioactive Waste
11.7.4 Spent Fuel
11.8 Nuclear Propulsion
11.8.1 Naval Applications
11.8.2 Other Marine Applications
11.8.3 Nuclear Propulsion in Space
Chapter 12 Other Methods for Converting Nuclear Energy to Electricity
12.1 Fusion Reactors
12.1.1 Energy Production in Plasmas
12.2 Magnetically Confined Fusion (MCF)
12.2.1 Fusion Energy Gain FActor
12.2.2 Confinement Times
12.2.3 Triple Product Figure of Merit
12.2.4 Plasma Heating
12.2.5 History of Magnetically Confined Fusion Reactors
12.2.6 The ITER Fusion Reactor
12.3 Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF)
12.3.1 History of ICF
12.3.2 ICF Technical Problems
12.4 Other Fusion Machines
12.4.1 The Z machine
12.4.2.The Spherical Tokamak
12.4.3 Revival of the Stellarator
12.4.4 Prospects for Commercial Fusion Power
12.5 Thermoelectric Generators
12.5.1 Radionuclide Thermoelectric Generators
12.6 Thermionic Electrical Generators
12.6.1 Conversion Efficiency
12.6.2 In-Pile Thermionic Generator
12.7 AMTEC Conversion
12.8 Stirling Converters
12.9 Direct Conversion of Nuclear Radiation
12.9.1 Types of Nuclear Radiation Conversion Devices
12.9.2 Betavoltaic Batteries
12.10 Radioisotopes for Thermal Power Sources
12.11 Space Reactors
12.11.1 The U.S. Space Reactor Program
12.11.2 The Russian Space Reactor Program
Chapter 13 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Research
13.1 Production of Radioisotopes
13.2 Industrial and Research Uses of Radioisotopes and Radiation
13.3 Tracer Applications
13.3.1 Leak Detection
13.3.2 Pipeline Interfaces
13.3.3 Flow Patterns
13.3.4 Flow Rate Measurements
13.3.5 Labeled Reagents
13.3.6 Tracer Dilution
13.3.7 Wear Analyses
13.3.8 Mixing Times
13.3.9 Residence Times
13.3.10 Frequency Response
13.3.11 Surface Temperature Measurements
13.3.12 Radiodating
13.4 Materials Affect Radiation
13.4.1 Radiography
13.4.2 Thickness Gauging
13.4.3 Density Gauges
13.4.4 Level Gauges
13.4.5 Radiation Absorptiometry
13.4.6 Oil-Well Logging
13.4.7 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)
13.4.8 Neutron Capture-Gamma Ray Analysis
13.4.9 X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis
13.4.10 Proton Induced Gamma-Ray Emission (PIGE)
13.4.11 Molecular Structure Determination
13.4.12 Smoke Detectors
13.5 Radiation Affects Materials
13.5.1 Food Preservation
13.5.2 Sterilization
13.5.3 Insect Control
13.5.4 Polymer Modification
13.5.5 Biological Mutation Studies
13.5.6 Chemonuclear Processing
13.6 Particle Accelerators
13.6.1 Cockcroft-Walton Accelerator
13.6.2 Van de Graaff Accelerator
13.6.3 Linear Accelerators
13.6.4 The Cyclotron
13.6.5 The Synchrocyclotron and the Isochronous Cyclotron
13.6.6 Proton Syschrotrons
13.6.7 Betatron
Chapter 14 Medical Applications of Nuclear Technology
14.1 Diagnostic Imaging
14.1.1 X-Ray Projection Imaging
14.1.2 Fluoroscopy
14.1.3 Mammography
14.1.4 Bone Densitometry
14.1.5 X-Ray Computed Tomography (CT)
14.1.6 CT Detector Technology
14.1.7 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)
14.1.8 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
14.1.9 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
14.2 Radioimmunoassay
14.3 Diagnostic Radiotracers
14.4 Radioimmunoscintigraphy
14.5 Radiation Therapy
14.5.1 Early Applications
14.5.2 Early Teletherapy
14.5.3 Accelerator Based Teletherapy
14.5.5 Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy
14.5.6 Electron Beam Therapy
14.5.7 Proton Beam Therapy
14.5.8 Stereotactic Radiation Therapy
14.5.9 Clinical Brachytherapy
14.5.10 Radionuclide Therapy
14.5.11 Boron Neutron Capture Therapy
Appendic A: Fundamental Atomic Data
Appendix B: Atomic Mass Table
Appendix C: Cross Sections and Related Data
Appendix D: Decay Characteristics of Selected Radionuclides